فرعونيات - الطب عند الفراعنة
Michael J. Masley à Egyptology Temple
~ Ancient Egyptian Medicine ~
The Ancient Egyptians knew that physical trauma could cause injury, and they knew that snake and scorpion bites could cause serio...us illness. They also realized that some diseases could spread from one person to another, but they knew nothing about bacteria and viruses and tended to assume that any medical problem they did not fully understand must, at least in part, be caused by malignant forces.
The Ancient Egyptians knew that physical trauma could cause injury, and they knew that snake and scorpion bites could cause serio...us illness. They also realized that some diseases could spread from one person to another, but they knew nothing about bacteria and viruses and tended to assume that any medical problem they did not fully understand must, at least in part, be caused by malignant forces.
If the supernatural caused illness, it was reasonable to use magic to try to get rid of it. A sympathetic god or goddess might be invited to save the patient (often Sekhmet, Horus, or Aset (Isis)). A magic spell might be spoken to drive the force away. While some medicines did or were thought to have curative powers, others were deliberately repulsive in the hope the forces causing the illness would be driven away. Religious treatments usually involved an incantation creating an association between the patient and a deity. A disease causing force could be expected to run away if it thought it was toying with a major God or Goddess.
The following incantations are quoted from John F. Nunn, Ancient Egyptian Medicine (2003):
"Flow out, poison. Come forth. Go forth on to the ground. Horus will exorcise you. He will punish you. He will spit you out."
"Repelled is the enemy that is in the wound. Cast out is the evil that is in the blood....I am under the protection of Isis; my rescue is the son of Osiris."
"I am Horus, the young child with his finger to his mouth; the sandal of Horus is what tramples the nekhi snake."
We do know that some Egyptians were called "swnw" and this word is translated as physician. Other people who offered help to the sick were called magicians. Occasionally we see reference to individuals who carried both titles. Some priests were also available to provide help to the sick by calling on the gods to intervene on behalf of the patient.
The importance of religion and magic in effecting a cure ought not to be minimized. The so-called placebo effect is well known to drug researchers of the modern world. Many people get just as well by taking fake medicine as the people taking the real medicine. Believing you are going to get well is often all that is necessary. We should not be surprised, then, to find the Ancient Egyptians placing reliance on cures that our modern skepticism would argue ought not to work.
Egyptian physicians were trained to begin by questioning and examining the patient. They then announced a diagnosis and made one of three pronouncements: 1. I can treat this condition, 2 I can contend with this condition, 3. I can do nothing for this condition.
Medications were typically mixed with one or more of six vehicles: water (sometimes called dew), honey, milk, oil, wine or beer. The vehicle of choice depended on the kind of solvent the active ingredients need to be dissolved and on the method of application. Some botanicals will dissolve only in alcohol, others only in water, etc. Honey or oil were useful if you needed something that would stick to skin. There were five ways to give the medicine to the patient: oral, rectal, vaginal, external and fumigation. For a woman, the later usually involved producing fumes that entered her body through the vagina.
Egyptologists have a number of difficulties in assessing ancient medications. The most serious one is that we cannot always recognize the modern name for every plant in the recipe. A modern scientist might know that the first seven ingredients in a recipe could not possibly cure the named illness, but without knowing the identity of the eighth ingredient it is impossible to be sure that this medicine is useless. The second serious problem is that it is not always clear what disease the physician is attempting to treat. In come cases the symptoms are too vague. In other cases there is no diagnosis at all.
The practice of mummification gave the Egyptians a good picture of the various organs inside the human body, but not much information on the function of those organs. They knew nothing about the circulation of blood through arteries, veins, the heart and the lungs. They thought of the heart, not the brain, as the thinking part of the body. They knew that the bite of scorpions and certain snakes could cause serious illness, but they had no understanding of the role of bacteria and viruses in the transmission of disease.
Despite these deficiencies, Egyptian physicians were very clear about the need to determine the nature of the illness before attempting to provide the treatment. All too often they had no idea as to the cause but they did realize the need to make the treatment match at least the specific symptoms. As a result, Egyptian physicians had an excellent reputation and were often called upon by the royalty of foreign lands.
EXAMPLES OF TREATMENT :
Raw meat was applied to wounds. This is not dissimilar to the modern practice of applying steak to a black eye. The meat treatment was often followed by the use of honey and oil. Bacteria cannot grow in honey, so this was probably an effective treatment.
The ricinus communis plant, from which we make castor oil, was well known in Ancient Egypt. It was said that a woman could make her hair grow by grinding the beans, adding some oil, and rubbing the resulting mixture on her head.
Natron, best known as the agent which removed moisture in the mummification process, was recommended as a means of drawing pus out of a boil. The exact composition of natron varied from region to region but it was a sea salt containing sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate.
Ground malachite was used as a cosmetic (it has an attractive green color) but it was also used to treat various eye diseases and for a wound "that had gone foul". While the Ancient Egyptians knew nothing about bacteria, they did recognize that malachite could cure the symptoms we today know were caused by bacteria.
A mixture of equal parts of the fat of a lion, hippopotamus, crocodile, cat, snake and ibex, was said to be a cure for baldness if rubbed in the scalp.
A mouse cooked in oil could be used to prevent hair turning gray.
A mouse roasted to a cinder and ground into a basin of milk was said to be a cure for whooping cough. The mouse was a prime ingredient in a number of remedies, but the reasoning behind this remains a mystery.
Pain Killers: The Ancient Egyptians certainly knew of the water lily and lotus, cannabis, the poppy, and the mandrake. There are hints, but no unequivocal evidence that they knew of the narcotics in each and the use to which they could be put to control pain.
GYNECOLOGY
A Test for Fertility:
Place an onion in a woman's vagina. If the odor is present in her mouth the next day, then she is able to become pregnant.
A Test for Pregnancy:
Emmer wheat and barley seeds are moistened every day with a woman's urine. If the seeds sprout she is pregnant. If the barley sprouts first, the child will be male; if the emmer grows first the child will be female. (Modern science has shown a fair degree of accuracy in the pregnancy aspect of the test but none in the sex-determination aspect.)
New oil is smeared on the breasts and shoulders of a woman as she lies down. If in the following morning, her blood vessels are "fresh and good, none being collapsed" then she will bear children satisfactorily.
BIRTH CONTROL:
Lint, moistened with a mixture of acacia, carob, and dates ground into honey, "should be placed at the entrance of the vagina.
The Ancient Egyptians were quite advanced in their diagnoses and treatments of various illnesses. Their advancements in ancient medical techniques were quite extraordinary, considering the lack of “modern” facilities, sterilization, sanitation, and researching capabilities. The remedies used by Ancient Egyptian physicians came mostly from nature, and many are still considered viable homeopathic treatments for certain ailments today.
Thanks to the Egyptians’ diligent record keeping, scholars have been able to translate information from the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Kahun Papyrus, and the Ebers Papyrus to learn the extent of the Egyptian’s knowledge of anatomy, disease, hygiene, disease, and healing. Treatments for several ailments were outlined in these documents, utilizing resources available to them, including minerals, plant materials, and animal products (including urine). The papyri also explain how these treatments were administered, and they were dispensed in a number of ways, including orally, topically, and through suppositories and enemas.
Disease was rather common in Ancient Egypt. There were many skin afflictions, such as parasites, that occurred as a result of contact with the Nile waters. Worms and tuberculosis were also common, and were transmitted from their cattle. And pneumonia was a fairly common occurrence, resulting from taking excessive amounts of sand into the lungs.
While many ailments would have been difficult or impossible to treat (though they would have used what knowledge they did have to conduct rudimentary surgeries as well as carry out rituals and prayers for healing), the Egyptians were able to treat many less serious conditions through the use of natural remedies. Many of the remedies are familiar, as they are used today as homeopathic remedies. They included: Pain relief – thyme and laxatives – Dill, balsam apple, onions, parsley Asthma – sesame, honey and milk, frankincense Digestive aids – garlic, sandalwood, juniper, mint Breathe freshener – mint, caraway Chest pains – juniper, mustard seeds, aloe Headaches – aloe, poppy seeds Wound dressing – honey, a natural antibiotic Anesthetic – poppy seeds (also used for insomnia) Burns and skin diseases – aloe Epilepsy – camphor Vomiting – mustard seeds to induce it, mint to stop it.
Along with their strong faith in their Gods, the Ancient Egyptians used their knowledge of the human anatomy and the natural world around them to treat a number of ailments and disorders effectively. Their knowledge and research is impressive still today, and their work paved the way for the study of modern medicine.
The medicine of the ancient Egyptians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the c. 33rd century BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC, Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged and was highly advanced for its time, including simple non-invasive surgery, setting of bones and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks.
Until the 19th century, the main sources of information about ancient Egyptian medicine were writings from later in antiquity. Homer c. 800 BC remarked in the Odyssey: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind" and "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art".
The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 440 BC and wrote extensively of his observations of their medicinal practices. Pliny the Elder also wrote favorably of them in historical review. Hippocrates (the "father of medicine"), Herophilos, Erasistratus and later Galen studied at the temple of Amenhotep, and acknowledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to Greek medicine.
In 1822, the translation of the Rosetta stone finally allowed the translation of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions and papyri, including many related to medical matters (Egyptian medical papyri). The resultant interest in Egyptology in the 19th century led to the discovery of several sets of extensive ancient medical documents, including the Ebers papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Hearst Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus and others dating back as far as 3000 BC.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus (see below) is a textbook on surgery and details anatomical observations and the "examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis" of numerous ailments It was probably written around 1600 BC, but is regarded as a copy of several earlier texts. Medical information in it dates from as early as 3000 BC. Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the original author of the papyrus text, and founder of ancient Egyptian medicine. The earliest known surgery was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC.
The Ebers Papyrus (see below) c. 1550 BC is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and also includes 877 prescriptions. It may also contain the earliest documented awareness of tumors, if the poorly understood ancient medical terminology has been correctly interpreted. Other information comes from the images that often adorn the walls of Egyptian tombs and the translation of the accompanying inscriptions.
Advances in modern medical technology also contributed to the understanding of ancient Egyptian medicine. Paleopathologists were able to use X-Rays and later CAT Scans to view the bones and organs of mummies. Electron microscopes, mass spectrometry and various forensic techniques allowed scientists unique glimpses of the state of health in Egypt 4000 years ago.
Other documents as the Edwin Smith papyrus (1550 BC), Hearst papyrus (1450 BC), and Berlin papyrus (1200 BC) also provide valuable insight into ancient Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith papyrus for example mentioned research methods, the making of a diagnosis of the patient, and the setting of a treatment. It is thus viewed as a learning manual. Treatments consisted of ailments made from i.e. animal, vegetable or fruit substances or minerals.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is an Ancient Egyptian medical text on surgical trauma. It dates to Dynasties 16-17 of the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt, ca. 1600 BCE. The Edwin Smith papyrus is unique among the medical papyri that survive today. While other papyri, such as the Ebers Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus, are medical texts based in magic, the Edwin Smith Papyrus presents a rational and scientific approach to medicine in Ancient Egypt.
The Edwin Smith papyrus is 4.68 m in length, divided into 17 pages. The recto, the front side, is 377 lines long, while the verso, the backside, is 92 lines long. Aside from the fragmentary first sheet of the papyrus, the remainder of the papyrus is fairly intact.
It is written in hieratic, the Egyptian cursive form of hieroglyphs, in black and red ink. The vast majority of the papyrus is concerned with trauma and surgery. On the recto side, there are 48 cases of injury. Each case details the type of the injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis and prognosis, and treatment.The verso side consists of eight magic spells and five prescriptions. The spells of the verso side and two incidents in Case 8 and Case 9 are the exceptions to the practical nature of this medical text.
Authorship of the Edwin Smith Papyrus is debated. The majority of the papyrus was written by one scribe, with only small sections written by a second scribe. The papyrus ends abruptly in the middle of a line, without any inclusion of an author.
It is believed that the papyrus is based upon an earlier text from the Old Kingdom. Form and commentary included in the papyrus give evidence to the existence of an earlier document. The text is attributed by some to Imhotep, an architect, high priest, and physician of the Old Kingdom, 3000-2500 BCE,.
The rational and practical nature of the papyrus is illustrated in the 48 cases. The papyrus begins by addressing injuries to the head, and continues with treatments for injuries to neck, arms and torso.[9] The title of each case details the nature of trauma, such as ÒPractices for a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split the skullÓ.
Next, the examination provides further details of the trauma. The diagnosis and prognosis follow the examination. Last, treatment options are offered. In many of the cases, explanations of trauma are included to provide further clarity.
Among the treatments are closing wounds with sutures (for wounds of the lip, throat, and shoulder), preventing and curing infection with honey, and stopping bleeding with raw meat. Immobilization is advised for head and spinal cord injuries, as well as other lower body fractures. The papyrus also describes anatomical observations. It contains the first known descriptions of the cranial sutures, the meninges, the external surface of the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the intracranial pulsations.
The procedures of this papyrus demonstrate an Egyptian level of knowledge of medicines that surpassed that of Hippocrates, who lived 1000 years later. Due to its practical nature and the types of trauma investigated, it is believed that the papyrus served as a textbook for the trauma that resulted from military battles.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus dates to Dynasties 16-17 of the Second Intermediate Period. Egypt was ruled from Thebes during this time and the papyrus is likely to have originated from there. Edwin Smith purchased in Luxor, Egypt in 1862, from an Egyptian dealer named Mustafa Agha.
The papyrus was in the possession of Smith until his death, when his daughter donated the papyrus to New York Historical Society. From 1938 through 1948, the papyrus was at the Brooklyn Museum. In 1948, the New York Historical Society and the Brooklyn Museum presented the papyrus to the New York Academy of Medicine, where it remains today.
The first translation of the papyrus was by James Henry Breasted, with the medical advice of Dr. Arno B Luckhardt, in 1930 BreastedÕs translation changed the understanding of the history of medicine. It demonstrates that Egyptian medical care was not limited to the magical modes of healing demonstrated in other Egyptian medical sources. Rational, scientific practices were used, constructed through observation and examination.
The Ebers Papyrus, also known as Papyrus Ebers, is an Egyptian medical papyrus dating to circa 1550 BC. Among the oldest and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, it was purchased at Luxor, (Thebes) in the winter of 1873Ð74 by Georg Ebers. It is currently kept at the library of the University of Leipzig, in Germany.
The papyrus was written in about 1500 BC, but it is believed to have been copied from earlier texts, perhaps dating as far back as 3400 BC. Ebers Papyrus is a 110-page scroll, which is about 20 meters long.
Along with the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (circa 1800 BC), the Edwin Smith papyrus (circa 1600 BC), the Hearst papyrus (circa 1600 BC), the Brugsch Papyrus (circa 1300 BC), the London Medical Papyrus (circa 1300 BC), the Ebers Papyrus is among the oldest preserved medical documents. The Brugsch Papyrus provides parallel passages to Ebers Papyrus, helping to clarify certain passages of the latter.
The Ebers Papyrus is written in hieratic Egyptian writing and preserves for us the most voluminous record of ancient Egyptian medicine known. The scroll contains some 700 magical formulas and remedies. It contains many incantations meant to turn away disease-causing demons and there is also evidence of a long tradition of empirical practice and observation.
The papyrus contains a "treatise on the heart". It notes that the heart is the center of the blood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body.
The Egyptians seem to have known little about the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body - blood, tears, urine and semen.
Mental disorders are detailed in a chapter of the papyrus called the Book of Hearts. Disorders such as depression and dementia are covered.
The descriptions of these disorders suggest that Egyptians conceived of mental and physical diseases in much the same way. The papyrus contains chapters on contraception, diagnosis of pregnancy and other gynecological matters, intestinal disease and parasites, eye and skin problems, dentistry and the surgical treatment of abscesses and tumors, bone-setting and burns.
Remedies
Examples of remedies in the Ebers Papyrus include:
Asthma: A mixture of herbs heated on a brick so that the sufferer could inhale their fumes.
Belly: "For the evacuation of the belly: Cow's milk 1; grains 1; honey 1; mash, sift, cook; take in four portions."
Bowels: "To remedy the bowels: Melilot, 1; dates, 1; cook in oil; anoint sick part."
Cancer: Recounting a "tumor against the god Xenus", it recommends "do thou nothing there against".
Clothing: may be protected from mice and rats by applying cat's fat.
Death: Half an onion and the froth of beer was considered "a delightful remedy against death."
Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm): Wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly pull it out. (3500 years later, this remains the standard treatment.
Medicinal use of ochre clays: One of the common remedies described in the papyrus is ochre, or medicinal clay. For example, it is prescribed for various intestinal complaints. It is also prescribed for various eye complaints. Yellow ochre is also described as a remedy for urological complaints.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (also Kahun Papyrus, Kahun Medical Papyrus, or UC 32057) is the oldest known medical text of any kind. Dated to about 1800 BCE, it deals with women's healthÑgynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc.
It was found at El-Lahun by Flinders Petrie in 1889 and first translated by F. Ll. Griffith in 1893 and published in The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob. The later Berlin Papyrus and the Ramesseum Papyrus IV cover much of the same ground, often giving identical prescriptions.
The text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment; no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non-surgical, comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.
The first seventeen parts have a common format starting with a title and are followed by a brief description of the symptoms, usually, though not always, having to do with the reproductive organs. P> The second section begins on the third page, and comprises eight paragraphs which, because of both the state of the extant copy and the language, are almost unintelligible. Despite this, there are several paragraphs that have a sufficiently clear level of language as well as being intact which can be understood.
Paragraph 19 is concerned with the recognition of who will give birth; paragraph 20 is concerned with the fumigation procedure which causes conception to occur; and paragraphs 20-22 are concerned with contraception. Among those materials prescribed for contraception are crocodile dung, 45ml of honey, and sour milk.
The third section (paragraphs 26-32) is concerned with the testing for pregnancy. Other methods include the placing of an onion bulb deep in the patients flesh, with the positive outcome being determined by the odor appearing to the patients nose.
The fourth and final section contains two paragraphs which do not fall into any of the previous categories. The first prescribes treatment for toothaches during pregnancy. The second describes what appears to be a fistula between bladder and vagina with incontinence of urine "in an irksome place."
LIST OF HERBAL REMEDIES:
Acacia (acacia nilotica)- vermifuge, eases diharea and internal bleeding, also used to treat skin diseases.
Aloe vera - worms, relieves headaches, soothes chest pains, burns, ulcers and for skin disease and allergies.
Basil (ocimum basilicum)- excellent for heart.
Balsam Apple (malus sylvestris)or Apple of Jerusalem - laxative, skin allergies, soothes headaches, gums and teeth, for asthma, liver stimulant, weak digestion.
Bayberry(Myrica cerifera) - stops diarrhea, soothes ulcers, shrinks hemorrhoids, repels flies.
Belladonna - pain reliever;camphor tree - reduces fevers, soothes gums, soothes epilepsy.
Caraway (Carum carvi; Umbelliferae)- soothes flatulence, digestive, breath freshener.
Cardamom( Eletarria cardamomum; Zingiberacae)- Used as a spice in foods,digestive, soothes flatulence.
Colchicum (Citrullus colocynthus) - also known as "Meadow Saffron", soothes rheumatism, reduces swelling.
Common Juniper tree (Juniperis phonecia; Juniperus drupacea)- digestive, soothes chest pains, soothes stomach cramps.
Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba; Piperaceae)- urinary tract infections, larynx and throat infections, gum ulcers and infections, soothes headaches.
Dill (Anethum graveolens)- soothes flatulence, relieves dyspepsia, laxative and diuretic properties.
Fenugreek(Trigonella foenum-graecum) - respiratory disorders, cleanses the stomach, calms the liver, soothes pancreas, reduces swelling.
Frankincense(Boswellia carterii) - throat and larynx infections, stops bleeding, cuts phlegm, asthma, stops vomiting.
Garlic (Allium sativa) - gives vitality, soothes flatulence and aids digestion, mild laxative, shrinks hemorrhoids, rids body of "spirits" (note, during the building of the Pyramids, the workers were given garlic daily to give them the vitality and strength to carry on and perform well).
Henna (Lawsomia inermis) - astringent, stops diarrhea, close open wounds (and used as a dye).
Honey was widely used, a natural antibiotic and used to dress wounds and as a base for healing unguants, as was castor oil, coriander,beer and other foods.
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra - mild laxative, expels phlegm, soothes liver, pancreas and chest and respiratory problems.
Mustard (Sinapis alba) - induces vomiting, relieves chest pains.
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) - stops diarrhea, relives headaches, soothes gums, toothaches and backaches.
Onion (Allium cepa) - diuretic, induces perspiration, prevents colds, soothes sciatica, relieves pains and other cardiovascular problems.
Parsley (Apium petroselinum) - diuretic.
Mint (Mentha piperita) - soothes flatulence, aids digestion, stops vomiting, breath freshener.
Sandalwood (Santallum albus) - aids digestion, stops diarrhea, soothes headaches and gout (used, of course, in incense).
Sesame (Sesamum indicum)- soothes asthma.
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)- laxative.
Thyme (Thymus/Thimbra) - pain reliever.
Tumeric (Curcumae longa) - closes open wounds (also was used to dye skin and cloth).
Poppy (papaver somniferum) - relieves insomnia, relieves headaches, anesthetic, soothes respiratory problems, deadens pain.
Doctors and Other Healers:
The medical profession of Ancient Egypt had its own hierarchy. At the top was the chief medical officer of Egypt. Under him were the superintendents and inspectors of physicians, and beneath then were the physicians. Egyptian doctors were very advanced in their knowledge of herbal remedies and surgical techniques. Also part of Egyptian medicine were magic, charms, and spells, which had only psychological effects, if any, on a patient.
The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is "wabau". This title has a long history. The earliest recorded physician in the world, Hesy-Ra, practiced in ancient Egypt. He was Chief of Dentists and Physicians to King Djoser, who ruled in the 27th century BC. The lady Peseshet (2400 BC) may be the first recorded female doctor: she was possibly the mother of Akhethotep, and on a stela dedicated to her in his tomb she is referred to as imy-r swnwt, which has been translated as "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians."
There were many ranks and specializations in the field of medicine. Royalty employed their own swnw, even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are ophthalmologist, gastroenterologist, proctologist, dentist, "doctor who supervises butchers" and an unspecified "inspector of liquids". The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, neru phuyt, literally translates as "shepherd of the anus".
Institutions, so called Houses of Life, are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since the 1st Dynasty and may have had medical functions, being at times associated in inscriptions with physicians, such as Peftauawyneit and Wedjahorresnet living in the middle of the first millennium BC. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave.
Practices:
Medical knowledge in ancient Egypt had an excellent reputation, and rulers of other empires would ask the Egyptian pharaoh to send them their best physician to treat their loved ones. Egyptians had some knowledge of human anatomy. For example, in the classic mummification process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hooked implement through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the brain case and remove the brain.
They also must have had a general idea of the location in the body cavity of the inner organs, which they removed through a small incision in the left groin. But whether this knowledge was passed on to the practitioners of medicine is unknown and does not seem to have had any impact on their medical theories.
Egyptian physicians were aware of the existence of the pulse and of a connection between pulse and heart. The author of the Smith Papyrus even had a vague idea of a cardiac system, although not of blood circulation and he was unable, or deemed it unimportant, to distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. They developed their theory of "channels" that carried air, water and blood to the body by analogies with the River Nile; if it became blocked, crops became unhealthy and they applied this principle to the body: If a person was unwell, they would use laxatives to unblock the "channels".
Quite a few medical practices were effective, such as many of the surgical procedures given in the Edwin Smith papyrus. Mostly, the physicians' advice for staying healthy was to wash and shave the body, including under the arms, and this may have prevented infections. They also advised patients to look after their diet, and avoid foods such as raw fish or other animals considered to be unclean.
Medical kit:
1) knives; (2) drill; (3) saw; (4) forceps or pincers; (5) censer; (6) hooks; (7) bags tied with string; (8, 10) beaked vessel; (11) vase with burning incense; (12) Horus eyes; (13) scales; (14) pot with flowers of Upper and Lower Egypt; (15) pot on pedestal; (16) graduated cubit or papyrus scroll without side knot (or a case holding reed scalpels); (17) shears; (18) spoons.
Magic (Heka) and Medicine:
Magic and religion were an integral part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Evil gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many ailments, so often the treatments involved a supernatural element, such as beginning treatment with an appeal to a deity. There does not appear to have existed a clear distinction between what nowadays one would consider the very distinct callings of priest and physician. The healers, many of them priests of Sekhmet, often used incantations and magic as part of treatment.
The widespread belief in magic and religion may have resulted in a powerful placebo effect; that is, the perceived validity of the cure may have contributed to its effectiveness. The impact of the emphasis on magic is seen in the selection of remedies or ingredients for them. Ingredients were sometimes selected seemingly because they were derived from a substance, plant or animal that had characteristics which in some way corresponded to the symptoms of the patient. This is known as the principle of simila similibus ("similar with similar") and is found throughout the history of medicine up to the modern practice of homeopathy. Thus an ostrich egg is included in the treatment of a broken skull, and an amulet portraying a hedgehog might be used against baldness.
Amulets in general were very popular, being worn for many magical purposes. Health related amulets are classified as homeopoetic, phylactic and theophoric. Homeopoetic amulets portray an animal or part of an animal, from which the wearer hopes to gain positive attributes like strength or speed. Phylactic amulets protected against harmful gods and demons. The famous Eye of Horus was often used on a phylactic amulet. Theophoric amulets represented Egyptian gods; one represented the girdle of Isis and was intended to stem the flow of blood at miscarriage. They were often made of bone, hanging from a leather strap.
Sources:
Ancient Egyptian Medicine by John F. Nunn
All other sources documented within from original, primary text of the Egyptians themselves.
Afficher la suiteThe following incantations are quoted from John F. Nunn, Ancient Egyptian Medicine (2003):
"Flow out, poison. Come forth. Go forth on to the ground. Horus will exorcise you. He will punish you. He will spit you out."
"Repelled is the enemy that is in the wound. Cast out is the evil that is in the blood....I am under the protection of Isis; my rescue is the son of Osiris."
"I am Horus, the young child with his finger to his mouth; the sandal of Horus is what tramples the nekhi snake."
We do know that some Egyptians were called "swnw" and this word is translated as physician. Other people who offered help to the sick were called magicians. Occasionally we see reference to individuals who carried both titles. Some priests were also available to provide help to the sick by calling on the gods to intervene on behalf of the patient.
The importance of religion and magic in effecting a cure ought not to be minimized. The so-called placebo effect is well known to drug researchers of the modern world. Many people get just as well by taking fake medicine as the people taking the real medicine. Believing you are going to get well is often all that is necessary. We should not be surprised, then, to find the Ancient Egyptians placing reliance on cures that our modern skepticism would argue ought not to work.
Egyptian physicians were trained to begin by questioning and examining the patient. They then announced a diagnosis and made one of three pronouncements: 1. I can treat this condition, 2 I can contend with this condition, 3. I can do nothing for this condition.
Medications were typically mixed with one or more of six vehicles: water (sometimes called dew), honey, milk, oil, wine or beer. The vehicle of choice depended on the kind of solvent the active ingredients need to be dissolved and on the method of application. Some botanicals will dissolve only in alcohol, others only in water, etc. Honey or oil were useful if you needed something that would stick to skin. There were five ways to give the medicine to the patient: oral, rectal, vaginal, external and fumigation. For a woman, the later usually involved producing fumes that entered her body through the vagina.
Egyptologists have a number of difficulties in assessing ancient medications. The most serious one is that we cannot always recognize the modern name for every plant in the recipe. A modern scientist might know that the first seven ingredients in a recipe could not possibly cure the named illness, but without knowing the identity of the eighth ingredient it is impossible to be sure that this medicine is useless. The second serious problem is that it is not always clear what disease the physician is attempting to treat. In come cases the symptoms are too vague. In other cases there is no diagnosis at all.
The practice of mummification gave the Egyptians a good picture of the various organs inside the human body, but not much information on the function of those organs. They knew nothing about the circulation of blood through arteries, veins, the heart and the lungs. They thought of the heart, not the brain, as the thinking part of the body. They knew that the bite of scorpions and certain snakes could cause serious illness, but they had no understanding of the role of bacteria and viruses in the transmission of disease.
Despite these deficiencies, Egyptian physicians were very clear about the need to determine the nature of the illness before attempting to provide the treatment. All too often they had no idea as to the cause but they did realize the need to make the treatment match at least the specific symptoms. As a result, Egyptian physicians had an excellent reputation and were often called upon by the royalty of foreign lands.
EXAMPLES OF TREATMENT :
Raw meat was applied to wounds. This is not dissimilar to the modern practice of applying steak to a black eye. The meat treatment was often followed by the use of honey and oil. Bacteria cannot grow in honey, so this was probably an effective treatment.
The ricinus communis plant, from which we make castor oil, was well known in Ancient Egypt. It was said that a woman could make her hair grow by grinding the beans, adding some oil, and rubbing the resulting mixture on her head.
Natron, best known as the agent which removed moisture in the mummification process, was recommended as a means of drawing pus out of a boil. The exact composition of natron varied from region to region but it was a sea salt containing sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate.
Ground malachite was used as a cosmetic (it has an attractive green color) but it was also used to treat various eye diseases and for a wound "that had gone foul". While the Ancient Egyptians knew nothing about bacteria, they did recognize that malachite could cure the symptoms we today know were caused by bacteria.
A mixture of equal parts of the fat of a lion, hippopotamus, crocodile, cat, snake and ibex, was said to be a cure for baldness if rubbed in the scalp.
A mouse cooked in oil could be used to prevent hair turning gray.
A mouse roasted to a cinder and ground into a basin of milk was said to be a cure for whooping cough. The mouse was a prime ingredient in a number of remedies, but the reasoning behind this remains a mystery.
Pain Killers: The Ancient Egyptians certainly knew of the water lily and lotus, cannabis, the poppy, and the mandrake. There are hints, but no unequivocal evidence that they knew of the narcotics in each and the use to which they could be put to control pain.
GYNECOLOGY
A Test for Fertility:
Place an onion in a woman's vagina. If the odor is present in her mouth the next day, then she is able to become pregnant.
A Test for Pregnancy:
Emmer wheat and barley seeds are moistened every day with a woman's urine. If the seeds sprout she is pregnant. If the barley sprouts first, the child will be male; if the emmer grows first the child will be female. (Modern science has shown a fair degree of accuracy in the pregnancy aspect of the test but none in the sex-determination aspect.)
New oil is smeared on the breasts and shoulders of a woman as she lies down. If in the following morning, her blood vessels are "fresh and good, none being collapsed" then she will bear children satisfactorily.
BIRTH CONTROL:
Lint, moistened with a mixture of acacia, carob, and dates ground into honey, "should be placed at the entrance of the vagina.
The Ancient Egyptians were quite advanced in their diagnoses and treatments of various illnesses. Their advancements in ancient medical techniques were quite extraordinary, considering the lack of “modern” facilities, sterilization, sanitation, and researching capabilities. The remedies used by Ancient Egyptian physicians came mostly from nature, and many are still considered viable homeopathic treatments for certain ailments today.
Thanks to the Egyptians’ diligent record keeping, scholars have been able to translate information from the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Kahun Papyrus, and the Ebers Papyrus to learn the extent of the Egyptian’s knowledge of anatomy, disease, hygiene, disease, and healing. Treatments for several ailments were outlined in these documents, utilizing resources available to them, including minerals, plant materials, and animal products (including urine). The papyri also explain how these treatments were administered, and they were dispensed in a number of ways, including orally, topically, and through suppositories and enemas.
Disease was rather common in Ancient Egypt. There were many skin afflictions, such as parasites, that occurred as a result of contact with the Nile waters. Worms and tuberculosis were also common, and were transmitted from their cattle. And pneumonia was a fairly common occurrence, resulting from taking excessive amounts of sand into the lungs.
While many ailments would have been difficult or impossible to treat (though they would have used what knowledge they did have to conduct rudimentary surgeries as well as carry out rituals and prayers for healing), the Egyptians were able to treat many less serious conditions through the use of natural remedies. Many of the remedies are familiar, as they are used today as homeopathic remedies. They included: Pain relief – thyme and laxatives – Dill, balsam apple, onions, parsley Asthma – sesame, honey and milk, frankincense Digestive aids – garlic, sandalwood, juniper, mint Breathe freshener – mint, caraway Chest pains – juniper, mustard seeds, aloe Headaches – aloe, poppy seeds Wound dressing – honey, a natural antibiotic Anesthetic – poppy seeds (also used for insomnia) Burns and skin diseases – aloe Epilepsy – camphor Vomiting – mustard seeds to induce it, mint to stop it.
Along with their strong faith in their Gods, the Ancient Egyptians used their knowledge of the human anatomy and the natural world around them to treat a number of ailments and disorders effectively. Their knowledge and research is impressive still today, and their work paved the way for the study of modern medicine.
The medicine of the ancient Egyptians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the c. 33rd century BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC, Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged and was highly advanced for its time, including simple non-invasive surgery, setting of bones and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks.
Until the 19th century, the main sources of information about ancient Egyptian medicine were writings from later in antiquity. Homer c. 800 BC remarked in the Odyssey: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind" and "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art".
The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 440 BC and wrote extensively of his observations of their medicinal practices. Pliny the Elder also wrote favorably of them in historical review. Hippocrates (the "father of medicine"), Herophilos, Erasistratus and later Galen studied at the temple of Amenhotep, and acknowledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to Greek medicine.
In 1822, the translation of the Rosetta stone finally allowed the translation of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions and papyri, including many related to medical matters (Egyptian medical papyri). The resultant interest in Egyptology in the 19th century led to the discovery of several sets of extensive ancient medical documents, including the Ebers papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Hearst Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus and others dating back as far as 3000 BC.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus (see below) is a textbook on surgery and details anatomical observations and the "examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis" of numerous ailments It was probably written around 1600 BC, but is regarded as a copy of several earlier texts. Medical information in it dates from as early as 3000 BC. Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the original author of the papyrus text, and founder of ancient Egyptian medicine. The earliest known surgery was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC.
The Ebers Papyrus (see below) c. 1550 BC is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and also includes 877 prescriptions. It may also contain the earliest documented awareness of tumors, if the poorly understood ancient medical terminology has been correctly interpreted. Other information comes from the images that often adorn the walls of Egyptian tombs and the translation of the accompanying inscriptions.
Advances in modern medical technology also contributed to the understanding of ancient Egyptian medicine. Paleopathologists were able to use X-Rays and later CAT Scans to view the bones and organs of mummies. Electron microscopes, mass spectrometry and various forensic techniques allowed scientists unique glimpses of the state of health in Egypt 4000 years ago.
Other documents as the Edwin Smith papyrus (1550 BC), Hearst papyrus (1450 BC), and Berlin papyrus (1200 BC) also provide valuable insight into ancient Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith papyrus for example mentioned research methods, the making of a diagnosis of the patient, and the setting of a treatment. It is thus viewed as a learning manual. Treatments consisted of ailments made from i.e. animal, vegetable or fruit substances or minerals.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is an Ancient Egyptian medical text on surgical trauma. It dates to Dynasties 16-17 of the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt, ca. 1600 BCE. The Edwin Smith papyrus is unique among the medical papyri that survive today. While other papyri, such as the Ebers Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus, are medical texts based in magic, the Edwin Smith Papyrus presents a rational and scientific approach to medicine in Ancient Egypt.
The Edwin Smith papyrus is 4.68 m in length, divided into 17 pages. The recto, the front side, is 377 lines long, while the verso, the backside, is 92 lines long. Aside from the fragmentary first sheet of the papyrus, the remainder of the papyrus is fairly intact.
It is written in hieratic, the Egyptian cursive form of hieroglyphs, in black and red ink. The vast majority of the papyrus is concerned with trauma and surgery. On the recto side, there are 48 cases of injury. Each case details the type of the injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis and prognosis, and treatment.The verso side consists of eight magic spells and five prescriptions. The spells of the verso side and two incidents in Case 8 and Case 9 are the exceptions to the practical nature of this medical text.
Authorship of the Edwin Smith Papyrus is debated. The majority of the papyrus was written by one scribe, with only small sections written by a second scribe. The papyrus ends abruptly in the middle of a line, without any inclusion of an author.
It is believed that the papyrus is based upon an earlier text from the Old Kingdom. Form and commentary included in the papyrus give evidence to the existence of an earlier document. The text is attributed by some to Imhotep, an architect, high priest, and physician of the Old Kingdom, 3000-2500 BCE,.
The rational and practical nature of the papyrus is illustrated in the 48 cases. The papyrus begins by addressing injuries to the head, and continues with treatments for injuries to neck, arms and torso.[9] The title of each case details the nature of trauma, such as ÒPractices for a gaping wound in his head, which has penetrated to the bone and split the skullÓ.
Next, the examination provides further details of the trauma. The diagnosis and prognosis follow the examination. Last, treatment options are offered. In many of the cases, explanations of trauma are included to provide further clarity.
Among the treatments are closing wounds with sutures (for wounds of the lip, throat, and shoulder), preventing and curing infection with honey, and stopping bleeding with raw meat. Immobilization is advised for head and spinal cord injuries, as well as other lower body fractures. The papyrus also describes anatomical observations. It contains the first known descriptions of the cranial sutures, the meninges, the external surface of the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the intracranial pulsations.
The procedures of this papyrus demonstrate an Egyptian level of knowledge of medicines that surpassed that of Hippocrates, who lived 1000 years later. Due to its practical nature and the types of trauma investigated, it is believed that the papyrus served as a textbook for the trauma that resulted from military battles.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus dates to Dynasties 16-17 of the Second Intermediate Period. Egypt was ruled from Thebes during this time and the papyrus is likely to have originated from there. Edwin Smith purchased in Luxor, Egypt in 1862, from an Egyptian dealer named Mustafa Agha.
The papyrus was in the possession of Smith until his death, when his daughter donated the papyrus to New York Historical Society. From 1938 through 1948, the papyrus was at the Brooklyn Museum. In 1948, the New York Historical Society and the Brooklyn Museum presented the papyrus to the New York Academy of Medicine, where it remains today.
The first translation of the papyrus was by James Henry Breasted, with the medical advice of Dr. Arno B Luckhardt, in 1930 BreastedÕs translation changed the understanding of the history of medicine. It demonstrates that Egyptian medical care was not limited to the magical modes of healing demonstrated in other Egyptian medical sources. Rational, scientific practices were used, constructed through observation and examination.
The Ebers Papyrus, also known as Papyrus Ebers, is an Egyptian medical papyrus dating to circa 1550 BC. Among the oldest and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, it was purchased at Luxor, (Thebes) in the winter of 1873Ð74 by Georg Ebers. It is currently kept at the library of the University of Leipzig, in Germany.
The papyrus was written in about 1500 BC, but it is believed to have been copied from earlier texts, perhaps dating as far back as 3400 BC. Ebers Papyrus is a 110-page scroll, which is about 20 meters long.
Along with the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (circa 1800 BC), the Edwin Smith papyrus (circa 1600 BC), the Hearst papyrus (circa 1600 BC), the Brugsch Papyrus (circa 1300 BC), the London Medical Papyrus (circa 1300 BC), the Ebers Papyrus is among the oldest preserved medical documents. The Brugsch Papyrus provides parallel passages to Ebers Papyrus, helping to clarify certain passages of the latter.
The Ebers Papyrus is written in hieratic Egyptian writing and preserves for us the most voluminous record of ancient Egyptian medicine known. The scroll contains some 700 magical formulas and remedies. It contains many incantations meant to turn away disease-causing demons and there is also evidence of a long tradition of empirical practice and observation.
The papyrus contains a "treatise on the heart". It notes that the heart is the center of the blood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body.
The Egyptians seem to have known little about the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body - blood, tears, urine and semen.
Mental disorders are detailed in a chapter of the papyrus called the Book of Hearts. Disorders such as depression and dementia are covered.
The descriptions of these disorders suggest that Egyptians conceived of mental and physical diseases in much the same way. The papyrus contains chapters on contraception, diagnosis of pregnancy and other gynecological matters, intestinal disease and parasites, eye and skin problems, dentistry and the surgical treatment of abscesses and tumors, bone-setting and burns.
Remedies
Examples of remedies in the Ebers Papyrus include:
Asthma: A mixture of herbs heated on a brick so that the sufferer could inhale their fumes.
Belly: "For the evacuation of the belly: Cow's milk 1; grains 1; honey 1; mash, sift, cook; take in four portions."
Bowels: "To remedy the bowels: Melilot, 1; dates, 1; cook in oil; anoint sick part."
Cancer: Recounting a "tumor against the god Xenus", it recommends "do thou nothing there against".
Clothing: may be protected from mice and rats by applying cat's fat.
Death: Half an onion and the froth of beer was considered "a delightful remedy against death."
Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm): Wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly pull it out. (3500 years later, this remains the standard treatment.
Medicinal use of ochre clays: One of the common remedies described in the papyrus is ochre, or medicinal clay. For example, it is prescribed for various intestinal complaints. It is also prescribed for various eye complaints. Yellow ochre is also described as a remedy for urological complaints.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (also Kahun Papyrus, Kahun Medical Papyrus, or UC 32057) is the oldest known medical text of any kind. Dated to about 1800 BCE, it deals with women's healthÑgynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc.
It was found at El-Lahun by Flinders Petrie in 1889 and first translated by F. Ll. Griffith in 1893 and published in The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob. The later Berlin Papyrus and the Ramesseum Papyrus IV cover much of the same ground, often giving identical prescriptions.
The text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment; no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non-surgical, comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.
The first seventeen parts have a common format starting with a title and are followed by a brief description of the symptoms, usually, though not always, having to do with the reproductive organs. P> The second section begins on the third page, and comprises eight paragraphs which, because of both the state of the extant copy and the language, are almost unintelligible. Despite this, there are several paragraphs that have a sufficiently clear level of language as well as being intact which can be understood.
Paragraph 19 is concerned with the recognition of who will give birth; paragraph 20 is concerned with the fumigation procedure which causes conception to occur; and paragraphs 20-22 are concerned with contraception. Among those materials prescribed for contraception are crocodile dung, 45ml of honey, and sour milk.
The third section (paragraphs 26-32) is concerned with the testing for pregnancy. Other methods include the placing of an onion bulb deep in the patients flesh, with the positive outcome being determined by the odor appearing to the patients nose.
The fourth and final section contains two paragraphs which do not fall into any of the previous categories. The first prescribes treatment for toothaches during pregnancy. The second describes what appears to be a fistula between bladder and vagina with incontinence of urine "in an irksome place."
LIST OF HERBAL REMEDIES:
Acacia (acacia nilotica)- vermifuge, eases diharea and internal bleeding, also used to treat skin diseases.
Aloe vera - worms, relieves headaches, soothes chest pains, burns, ulcers and for skin disease and allergies.
Basil (ocimum basilicum)- excellent for heart.
Balsam Apple (malus sylvestris)or Apple of Jerusalem - laxative, skin allergies, soothes headaches, gums and teeth, for asthma, liver stimulant, weak digestion.
Bayberry(Myrica cerifera) - stops diarrhea, soothes ulcers, shrinks hemorrhoids, repels flies.
Belladonna - pain reliever;camphor tree - reduces fevers, soothes gums, soothes epilepsy.
Caraway (Carum carvi; Umbelliferae)- soothes flatulence, digestive, breath freshener.
Cardamom( Eletarria cardamomum; Zingiberacae)- Used as a spice in foods,digestive, soothes flatulence.
Colchicum (Citrullus colocynthus) - also known as "Meadow Saffron", soothes rheumatism, reduces swelling.
Common Juniper tree (Juniperis phonecia; Juniperus drupacea)- digestive, soothes chest pains, soothes stomach cramps.
Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba; Piperaceae)- urinary tract infections, larynx and throat infections, gum ulcers and infections, soothes headaches.
Dill (Anethum graveolens)- soothes flatulence, relieves dyspepsia, laxative and diuretic properties.
Fenugreek(Trigonella foenum-graecum) - respiratory disorders, cleanses the stomach, calms the liver, soothes pancreas, reduces swelling.
Frankincense(Boswellia carterii) - throat and larynx infections, stops bleeding, cuts phlegm, asthma, stops vomiting.
Garlic (Allium sativa) - gives vitality, soothes flatulence and aids digestion, mild laxative, shrinks hemorrhoids, rids body of "spirits" (note, during the building of the Pyramids, the workers were given garlic daily to give them the vitality and strength to carry on and perform well).
Henna (Lawsomia inermis) - astringent, stops diarrhea, close open wounds (and used as a dye).
Honey was widely used, a natural antibiotic and used to dress wounds and as a base for healing unguants, as was castor oil, coriander,beer and other foods.
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra - mild laxative, expels phlegm, soothes liver, pancreas and chest and respiratory problems.
Mustard (Sinapis alba) - induces vomiting, relieves chest pains.
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) - stops diarrhea, relives headaches, soothes gums, toothaches and backaches.
Onion (Allium cepa) - diuretic, induces perspiration, prevents colds, soothes sciatica, relieves pains and other cardiovascular problems.
Parsley (Apium petroselinum) - diuretic.
Mint (Mentha piperita) - soothes flatulence, aids digestion, stops vomiting, breath freshener.
Sandalwood (Santallum albus) - aids digestion, stops diarrhea, soothes headaches and gout (used, of course, in incense).
Sesame (Sesamum indicum)- soothes asthma.
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)- laxative.
Thyme (Thymus/Thimbra) - pain reliever.
Tumeric (Curcumae longa) - closes open wounds (also was used to dye skin and cloth).
Poppy (papaver somniferum) - relieves insomnia, relieves headaches, anesthetic, soothes respiratory problems, deadens pain.
Doctors and Other Healers:
The medical profession of Ancient Egypt had its own hierarchy. At the top was the chief medical officer of Egypt. Under him were the superintendents and inspectors of physicians, and beneath then were the physicians. Egyptian doctors were very advanced in their knowledge of herbal remedies and surgical techniques. Also part of Egyptian medicine were magic, charms, and spells, which had only psychological effects, if any, on a patient.
The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is "wabau". This title has a long history. The earliest recorded physician in the world, Hesy-Ra, practiced in ancient Egypt. He was Chief of Dentists and Physicians to King Djoser, who ruled in the 27th century BC. The lady Peseshet (2400 BC) may be the first recorded female doctor: she was possibly the mother of Akhethotep, and on a stela dedicated to her in his tomb she is referred to as imy-r swnwt, which has been translated as "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians."
There were many ranks and specializations in the field of medicine. Royalty employed their own swnw, even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are ophthalmologist, gastroenterologist, proctologist, dentist, "doctor who supervises butchers" and an unspecified "inspector of liquids". The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, neru phuyt, literally translates as "shepherd of the anus".
Institutions, so called Houses of Life, are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since the 1st Dynasty and may have had medical functions, being at times associated in inscriptions with physicians, such as Peftauawyneit and Wedjahorresnet living in the middle of the first millennium BC. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave.
Practices:
Medical knowledge in ancient Egypt had an excellent reputation, and rulers of other empires would ask the Egyptian pharaoh to send them their best physician to treat their loved ones. Egyptians had some knowledge of human anatomy. For example, in the classic mummification process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hooked implement through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the brain case and remove the brain.
They also must have had a general idea of the location in the body cavity of the inner organs, which they removed through a small incision in the left groin. But whether this knowledge was passed on to the practitioners of medicine is unknown and does not seem to have had any impact on their medical theories.
Egyptian physicians were aware of the existence of the pulse and of a connection between pulse and heart. The author of the Smith Papyrus even had a vague idea of a cardiac system, although not of blood circulation and he was unable, or deemed it unimportant, to distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. They developed their theory of "channels" that carried air, water and blood to the body by analogies with the River Nile; if it became blocked, crops became unhealthy and they applied this principle to the body: If a person was unwell, they would use laxatives to unblock the "channels".
Quite a few medical practices were effective, such as many of the surgical procedures given in the Edwin Smith papyrus. Mostly, the physicians' advice for staying healthy was to wash and shave the body, including under the arms, and this may have prevented infections. They also advised patients to look after their diet, and avoid foods such as raw fish or other animals considered to be unclean.
Medical kit:
1) knives; (2) drill; (3) saw; (4) forceps or pincers; (5) censer; (6) hooks; (7) bags tied with string; (8, 10) beaked vessel; (11) vase with burning incense; (12) Horus eyes; (13) scales; (14) pot with flowers of Upper and Lower Egypt; (15) pot on pedestal; (16) graduated cubit or papyrus scroll without side knot (or a case holding reed scalpels); (17) shears; (18) spoons.
Magic (Heka) and Medicine:
Magic and religion were an integral part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Evil gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many ailments, so often the treatments involved a supernatural element, such as beginning treatment with an appeal to a deity. There does not appear to have existed a clear distinction between what nowadays one would consider the very distinct callings of priest and physician. The healers, many of them priests of Sekhmet, often used incantations and magic as part of treatment.
The widespread belief in magic and religion may have resulted in a powerful placebo effect; that is, the perceived validity of the cure may have contributed to its effectiveness. The impact of the emphasis on magic is seen in the selection of remedies or ingredients for them. Ingredients were sometimes selected seemingly because they were derived from a substance, plant or animal that had characteristics which in some way corresponded to the symptoms of the patient. This is known as the principle of simila similibus ("similar with similar") and is found throughout the history of medicine up to the modern practice of homeopathy. Thus an ostrich egg is included in the treatment of a broken skull, and an amulet portraying a hedgehog might be used against baldness.
Amulets in general were very popular, being worn for many magical purposes. Health related amulets are classified as homeopoetic, phylactic and theophoric. Homeopoetic amulets portray an animal or part of an animal, from which the wearer hopes to gain positive attributes like strength or speed. Phylactic amulets protected against harmful gods and demons. The famous Eye of Horus was often used on a phylactic amulet. Theophoric amulets represented Egyptian gods; one represented the girdle of Isis and was intended to stem the flow of blood at miscarriage. They were often made of bone, hanging from a leather strap.
Sources:
Ancient Egyptian Medicine by John F. Nunn
All other sources documented within from original, primary text of the Egyptians themselves.
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